The Caserta Agreement of 1944 and the “Entrapment” of the Left

On September 26, 1944, astir 81 years ago, the alleged Caserta Agreement was signed. It took its sanction from the Italian metropolis due to the fact that the applicable meetings were held successful its palace, wherever the Allied Headquarters were based.

Although the Caserta Agreement was signed by each participants astatine the time, it was aboriginal regarded by the Left arsenic a large mistake. Even a conception of the Right had objections. Unfortunately, lone a fewer days aboriginal (October 1944) astir of Greece was liberated from German occupation, yet the December events (Dekemvriana) followed, and yet the Civil War, with the Agreement of Varkiza arsenic an intermediate landmark. Today, we volition analyse whether the Caserta Agreement was so lopsided against the Left and whether its signing played a relation successful the tragic events that ensued.

From Lebanon to Caserta
On April 14, 1944, 1 of the astir shocking and tragic events of modern Greek past occurred: the assassination of Colonel Dimitrios Psarros, person of the absorption enactment EKKA, besides known arsenic the “5/42 Regiment,” by ELAS large Efthymios Zoulas with a burst of automatic occurrence from behind. Psarros was archetypal insulted and assaulted, and connected his sedate was written: “Colonel Psarros, traitor to the fatherland.” Georgios Siantos had ordered the dissolution of the 5/42 Regiment but successful nary mode Psarros’ execution. According to Grigorios Daphnes, the motivation instigator of the execution was Aris Velouchiotis. However, EAM officials aboriginal tried to represent Zoulas arsenic a concealed cause of the British Intelligence Service. The execution of Psarros, astir which we wrote extensively connected 02/05/2020, caused nationwide grief.

Psarros’ comrades Sarafis and Bakirtzis, arsenic good arsenic members of the PEEA (Political Committee of National Liberation) – particularly Svolos, Tsirimokos, and Siantos – felt heavy sorrow and indignation. Solon Grigoriadis writes that Psarros’ assassination “terrified” each EAM officials, arsenic PEEA members were preparing to question to Cairo to enactment successful a Government of National Unity. The information that neither Zoulas nor anyone other was punished for Psarros’ execution may, according to Grigoriadis, bespeak that Zoulas acted connected the orders of almighty KKE figures oregon adjacent its full leadership, since the enactment wanted to escaped itself of the troublesome colonel. What is definite is that Psarros’ execution and Zoulas’ impunity had catastrophic consequences for the Left.

The Lebanon Conference
Amid this dense ambiance for EAM–ELAS, the Lebanon Conference convened connected May 17, 1944. Before this, the British informed then-Prime Minister Sophoklis Venizelos that aft the suppression of the subject mutiny successful the Middle East, his ngo was implicit and helium had to resign. The existent crushed was that Venizelos had gradually distanced himself from the British and moved person to the Americans. The British had already chosen his successor: Georgios Papandreou.

Papandreou, who had been jailed by the Italians successful March 1942 for 3 months owed to his anti-occupation activity, held the KKE liable for the interior warring successful the mountains and had developed adjacent ties with the British. Known for his oratorical skills, helium impressed them with memoranda, starring the Foreign Office to prime him arsenic caput of the caller government. On April 26, 1944, helium was sworn successful arsenic Prime Minister and Foreign Minister.

Twenty-four representatives of antithetic parties and absorption organizations, including 7 from EAM–ELAS, arrived successful Cairo. Along with Papandreou, they participated successful the Lebanon Conference, which began connected May 17 astatine the “Bois de Boulogne” edifice extracurricular Beirut. The meeting, organized by the British, lasted 4 days. EAM and the KKE were successful a precise hard presumption due to the fact that of Psarros’ assassination, the Middle East mutiny, ELAS’ convulsive actions and panic successful Greece, and the onslaught against EDES.

Papandreou opened the attacks against the Left:
“Today, the information of our homeland is hell. The Germans slaughter. The Security Battalions slaughter. And the partisans slaughter, too. They termination and they burn. The work of EAM is that it did not bounds itself to the liberation conflict but wanted to hole its ain subject confrontation. For this, it sought to monopolize the National Struggle. It does not let anyone other to spell up into the mountains and combat the occupier, preventing Greeks from fulfilling their patriotic work nether punishment of death.”

General Sarafis responded:
“When you were politicking and doing nothing, we fought and created Free Greece. That is however we built our strength.”

The clashes continued and peaked erstwhile Psarros’ assassination was raised.

According to Georgios Roussos, the EAM–ELAS–KKE representatives present had 2 options: either permission the league oregon marque concessions. They chose the latter. They agreed to condemn the ED mutiny successful the Middle East, afloat taxable EAM to the government, judge that the Vice President not beryllium from EAM, and instrumentality lone 25% of ministries alternatively of the 50% they demanded. They adjacent accepted that the Interior Minister and Deputy Minister of Military Affairs not beryllium pro-Left. Instead, they received other, lesser ministries.

Some connected the Left reacted, arguing that their delegates were deceived by Papandreou. A week later, the communists backtracked and submitted caller demands, which were rejected. Eventually, connected September 2, 1944 – 3 and a fractional months aboriginal – the EAM ministers were sworn in: Alexandros Svolos (Finance), Ilias Tsirimokos (National Economy), Nikos Askoutsis (Public Works), Ioannis Zevgos (Agriculture), Miltiadis Porfyrogenis (Labor), and Angelos Angelopoulos (Deputy Minister of Finance). Zevgos and Porfyrogenis belonged to the KKE.

The Caserta Agreement (September 26, 1944)
On August 20, 1944, Papandreou went to Rome, wherever helium met Churchill, who admired him arsenic a large orator. The British Prime Minister recommended transferring the Greek authorities to Italy. This happened connected September 7, erstwhile the authorities was relocated to Cava de’ Tirreni adjacent Naples. From there, Papandreou invited Zervas and Sarafis to articulation him and conscionable with British General Scobie, who had been appointed commandant of the Greek–British forces to beryllium deployed successful Greece erstwhile the Germans withdrew. While Zervas’ acceptance was expected, Sarafis traveled to Italy lone aft an bid from Siantos and with the statement of Mandakas, Minister of Military Affairs of the “Mountain Government.

This enactment was overmuch criticized afterwards, not lone by mean supporters, but besides by salient members of EAM–ELAS.
But fto america spot who participated successful the gathering of Caserta. It began connected 23 September 1944.

From the British broadside participated: Minister of the Middle East Harold Macmillan, Commander-in-Chief of the Allied Forces successful the Middle East Henry Wilson, and General Scobie.

From the Greek broadside participated: G. Papandreou, the EAM ministers Zevgos and Svolos, and the distinguished constitutionalists Themistocles Tsatsos and Christos Sgouristas.

Also contiguous were Zervas and Sarafis, on with his ineligible advisor Konstantinos Despotopoulos (1913–2016), aboriginal besides an Academician.

Some sources besides notation that Porfyrogenis and Zevgos were present. Scobie was accompanied by his Chief of Staff Benfield, portion determination were besides different British subject and governmental figures, specified arsenic the British ambassador to Greece, Leeper.

Finally, 3 days of consultations and discussions led to the alleged “Caserta Agreement,” signed connected 26 September 1944.
Its cardinal points are arsenic follows:

Sarafis, Scobie, and Zervas, astatine the signing of the Varkiza Agreement, a fewer months aft Caserta

1. All guerrilla forces operating successful Greece are placed nether the orders of the Greek authorities of nationalist unity.
2. The Greek authorities places these forces nether the orders of General Scobie. From present on, ELAS (and Greece) volition beryllium commanded by… Scobie!
3. The leaders of the guerrillas shall forbid immoderate effort by their units to prehend authorization into their ain hands. Such an enactment volition beryllium considered a transgression and punished accordingly.
4. “As acold arsenic Athens is concerned, nary enactment shall beryllium undertaken but nether the nonstop orders of General Scobie, commanding the forces successful Greece.”
5. The Security Battalions are considered instruments of the enemy, says 1 line, portion a 2nd clarifies: they shall beryllium designated arsenic force formations unless they surrender “in accordance with orders to beryllium issued by the wide commanding the forces successful Greece.”
6. “All guerrilla forces, successful bid to enactment an extremity to the conflicts of the past, state that they shall signifier a nationalist national to coordinate their enactment for the greater involvement of the communal struggle.”

The 7th constituent of the Caserta Agreements includes orders issued by General Scobie:

• General Zervas shall proceed to run wrong the territorial limits of the Plaka agreement…
• General Sarafis (i.e., ELAS) shall proceed to run successful the remainder of Greece, except: “I) The portion of Attica. II) The Peloponnese. Troops successful this portion shall beryllium commanded by an serviceman nominated by General Sarafis, with the support of the Greek government, and assisted by a British liaison mission.” “III) Later, Thrace, including Thessaloniki, shall beryllium nether the bid of an serviceman nominated by the Greek government.”

Also contiguous astatine Caserta successful his diplomatic capableness was our aboriginal (1963) Nobel laureate poet, Giorgos Seferis, who vividly described the concern successful the Italian town:
“They person america isolated. There is nary news, we person nary newspapers, they person taken adjacent the radio… Shut in, without contacts, without information…”

Giorgos Seferis and others successful Cav Dei Tirreni

But it was not lone Seferis and different diplomats who had nary thought what was truly happening. Without the cognition of the Greek government, the British, a fewer days earlier Caserta, had reached decisive agreements for our state that were known neither to the Greek radical nor adjacent to Prime Minister G. Papandreou himself!

As Hitler’s Minister of War, Speer, revealed galore years aboriginal to writer Vassos Mathiopoulos, the British and the Germans had secretly met successful Lisbon and agreed that the Nazis would retreat unimpeded from Northern Greece and manus Thessaloniki implicit to the British earlier ELAS forces could participate the city.

Churchill had informed Eden, the British Foreign Secretary, that:
“The Greek authorities knows thing of the program and indispensable successful nary mode larn of it.”

Scobie, Churchill, and Eden

At the aforesaid time, 3 days earlier the Agreement, the Soviets informed the British that the Red Army, having liberated Bulgaria, would not participate Greek territory. The USSR recognized Greece arsenic an exclusive sphere of British influence.

The Agreement astir failed to beryllium signed, arsenic it initially contained a paragraph (or article) of the “short operational orders” referring to Scobie, with the arguable operation that his duties included imposing instrumentality and order.

Svolos objected and requested the deletion of this phrase, arsenic it was an interior substance of Greece falling nether the jurisdiction of its government. Although Wilson accepted the request, Papandreou, Macmillan, and Tsatsos tried to find different wording without changing the essence of the clause.

Eventually, Wilson definitively accepted its deletion and the substance ended there.

The royal palace successful Caserta during World War II

The time aft the Agreement, Papandreou appointed Lieutenant General P. Spiliotopoulos commandant of each troops successful the Attica region, ordering him to presume power of Athens and Piraeus and to support bid until the accomplishment of British troops.

He besides informed him that ELAS had been ordered to support its forces retired of Attica and gave him instructions connected handling the infamous Security Battalions.

The officers and soldiers were either to beryllium sent location oregon to surrender to Spiliotopoulos, successful which lawsuit they would beryllium disarmed and held arsenic prisoners.

Spiliotopoulos, however, was a arguable figure, arsenic helium had served arsenic Chief of the Gendarmerie during the Occupation, co-led the anti-communist absorption enactment RAN successful 1943–44, and, aft taking up his caller duties, recruited members of anti-EAM organizations to signifier authoritative Army units.

He created the 1st Regiment from the “X Organization” and Christos Zalokostas’ “National Action,” the 20th Regiment from RAN, the “National Committee,” and different smaller right-wing equipped groups.

Military commandant of Thessaloniki was appointed Colonel Papageorgiou, reputed to beryllium a collaborator, erstwhile person of PAO, an enactment dissolved by ELAS for suspicious activities.

Finally, it was believed that the paragraph concerning the Peloponnese targeted Aris Velouchiotis, who with his “black caps” had developed aggravated enactment successful the region.

Why did Svolos and Sarafis motion the Caserta Agreement?

A question people arises: wherefore did Svolos, Zevgos, Sarafis, and his advisor K. Despotopoulos motion the Agreement?

According to Sarafis, successful their backstage meeting:
“Comrade Svolos said that we indispensable beryllium accommodating since we had entered the authorities and should not reason implicit tiny matters. That we should beryllium alert that if we had not joined the government, the British were preparing to inhabit Greece and would instrumentality measures against ELAS. With our information (said Svolos) we summation ground, and the clip volition travel erstwhile they volition recognize america amended and spot america truthful that a Svolos authorities tin beryllium formed. Zevgos besides spoke successful the aforesaid spirit,” Sarafis concluded.

Konstantinos Despotopoulos

G. Roussos writes:
“So it was a maneuver. But adjacent arsenic a maneuver it remained inexplicable, since with the agreement, astatine slightest theoretically, the British and Papandreou bound ELAS. Unless the KKE had already decided to motorboat its December violative and truthful disregarded formalities, portion astatine the aforesaid clip trying to lull the British, earlier whom the communists, with this caller retreat, appeared highly conciliatory, astir submissive.” Roussos continues:
“Later, definite KKE officials accused the party’s enactment astatine the time, chiefly Siantos, of this caller retreat, portion others stressed that the docile submission of the KKE successful Lebanon and Caserta is considered by galore arsenic the main origin of the Left’s crushing defeat.”

Why are Siantos, Sarafis, and Svolos accused by their ain comrades?

Immediately aft the signing of the Caserta Agreement, reactions began from the Left itself. The KKE enactment enactment successful Athens denounced it by distributing 100,000 leaflets, which were aboriginal withdrawn connected the orders of the KKE leadership.

Tasos Vournas writes:
“Indeed, astatine Caserta the roadworthy was opened for the subjugation of the absorption to the British, which ended with its implicit decision and the hanging of the caput of its captain, Aris Velouchiotis, from the lampposts of Trikala arsenic if helium were the worst bandit.”

Antonio Solaro successful The History of the KKE (Greek edition, p.165) writes:
“The Caserta Agreement was the Lebanon of the military.”

In general, determination is the content that with the Caserta Agreement, the British and Papandreou trapped the KKE and EAM. Seferis spoke of a “trap successful which the General (Sarafis) was caught.

Alexandros Svolos

A fewer months later, Siantos himself, who had pressured Svolos and Sarafis to motion the Agreement, called it a “great mistake.”

Here is simply a diagnostic excerpt from the enactment study of G. Siantos astatine the 11th Plenum of the Central Committee of the KKE (5–11 April 1945).

He characterizes the Lebanon Agreement arsenic a “right-wing mistake,” and the Varkiza Agreement arsenic a “necessary agreement, a minimum of freedoms for action, which gives a ineligible ground for the anti-fascist struggle.”

About the Caserta Agreement helium writes:
“A akin and adjacent greater mistake was the Caserta Agreement. We were handing ELAS implicit to the British. We erased our request for a Greek Commander-in-Chief. (Already from Lebanon Othonaios had been designated). We broke the cohesion of ELAS. Apart from Zervas, we conceded territory to Tsaous Anton and Attica to Spiliotopoulos, frankincense hindering our enactment successful Attica. It obstructed the stroke against the Rallis men, etc. This excessively was a superior right-wing mistake. Let america not hide that Scobie, with the Caserta Agreement, justified his involution successful December.”
(Source: Communist Review, Issue 5, 2005).

In immoderate case, successful 1951 Zachariadis called Siantos a British agent, portion immoderate judge Stalin pressured the KKE enactment to sign.

Giorgos Siantos

Epilogue

The Germans had decided to permission Greece successful the summertime of 1944. The “evacuation order” was signed connected 29 August. Naturally, Allied quality services knew this.

On 6/8/1944 Churchill had already instructed the Chief of the British Staff to prepare, wrong a period astatine most, a unit of 10,000–12,000 men with tanks, armored vehicles, and artillery to beryllium landed successful Athens.

On the aforesaid day, Churchill emphasized to Eden that it was retired of the question to propulsion “Papandreou to the wolves, astatine the archetypal howls of those wretched Greek (communist) bandits.”

At the aforesaid time, 2 weeks aboriginal helium sought Roosevelt’s consent.

The American President agreed willingly and provided American airplanes for the transport of the British to Greece. By precocious August, Churchill ordered the forces for our state to beryllium acceptable by 11 September.

Scobie tasked Spiliotopoulos with preventing the contiguous seizure of powerfulness by the communists. With the fewer forces helium had, Spiliotopoulos drafted a defence program and different for the prevention of demolition of large nationalist works.

But EAM–ELAS of Athens–Piraeus and its surroundings was besides preparing.

Thus, connected 12 October Athens was liberated, and forty days aboriginal came the terrible, bloody, and disastrous December Events (Dekemvriana) for our country.

Panagiotis Spiliotopoulos successful 1952

Main root for the nonfiction was Modern History of the Greek Nation 1826–1974 by Georgios Roussos, Hellenic Cultural Foundation Editions, Athens 1975.